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R is a programming language and free software environment for statistical computing and graphics supported by the R Foundation for Statistical Computing.[6] The R language is widely used among statisticians and data miners for developing statistical software[7] and data analysis.[8] Polls, data mining surveys, and studies of scholarly literature databases show substantial increases in popularity in recent years.[9]. as of June 2019, R ranks 22nd in the TIOBE index, a measure of popularity of programming languages.[10]
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A GNU package,[11]source code for the R software environment is written primarily in C, Fortran and R itself,[12] and is freely available under the GNU General Public License. Pre-compiled binary versions are provided for various operating systems. Although R has a command line interface, there are several graphical user interfaces, such as RStudio, an integrated development environment.[13][14]
History[edit]
R is an implementation of the S programming language combined with lexical scoping semantics, inspired by Scheme.[15]S was created by John Chambers in 1976, while at Bell Labs. There are some important differences, but much of the code written for S runs unaltered.[16]
R was created by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman[17] at the University of Auckland, New Zealand, and is currently developed by the R Development Core Team (of which Chambers is a member).[18] R is named partly after the first names of the first two R authors and partly as a play on the name of S.[19] The project was conceived in 1992, with an initial version released in 1995 and a stable beta version in 2000.[20][21][22]
Statistical features[edit]
R and its libraries implement a wide variety of statistical and graphical techniques, including linear and nonlinear modelling, classical statistical tests, time-series analysis, classification, clustering, and others. R is easily extensible through functions and extensions, and the R community is noted for its active contributions in terms of packages. Many of R's standard functions are written in R itself, which makes it easy for users to follow the algorithmic choices made. For computationally intensive tasks, C, C++, and Fortran code can be linked and called at run time. Advanced users can write C, C++,[23]Java,[24].NET[25] or Python code to manipulate R objects directly.[26] R is highly extensible through the use of user-submitted packages for specific functions or specific areas of study. Due to its S heritage, R has stronger object-oriented programming facilities than most statistical computing languages. Extending R is also eased by its lexical scoping rules.[27]
Another strength of R is static graphics, which can produce publication-quality graphs, including mathematical symbols. Dynamic and interactive graphics are available through additional packages.[28]
R has Rd, its own LaTeX-like documentation format, which is used to supply comprehensive documentation, both online in a number of formats and in hard copy.[29]
Programming features[edit]
R is an interpreted language; users typically access it through a command-line interpreter. If a user types
2+2 at the R command prompt and presses enter, the computer replies with 4, as shown below:
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This calculation is interpreted as the sum of two single-element vectors, resulting in a single-element vector. The prefix
[1] indicates that the list of elements following it on the same line starts with the first element of the vector (a feature that is useful when the output extends over multiple lines).
Like other similar languages such as APL and MATLAB, R supports matrix arithmetic. R's data structures include vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames (similar to tables in a relational database) and lists.[30] Arrays are stored in column-major order.[31] R's extensible object system includes objects for (among others): regression models, time-series and geo-spatial coordinates. The scalar data type was never a data structure of R.[32] Instead, a scalar is represented as a vector with length one.[33]
Many features of R derive from Scheme. R uses S-expressions to represent both data and code. Functions are first-class and can be manipulated in the same way as data objects, facilitating meta-programming, and allow multiple dispatch. Variables in R are lexically scoped and dynamically typed. Function arguments are passed by value, and are lazy -- that is to say, they are only evaluated when they are used, not when the function is called.
R supports procedural programming with functions and, for some functions, object-oriented programming with generic functions. A generic function acts differently depending on the classes of arguments passed to it. In other words, the generic function dispatches the function (method) specific to that class of object. For example, R has a generic
print function that can print almost every class of object in R with a simple print(objectname) syntax.[34]
Although used mainly by statisticians and other practitioners requiring an environment for statistical computation and software development, R can also operate as a general matrix calculation toolbox â with performance benchmarks comparable to GNU Octave or MATLAB.[35]
Packages[edit]
The capabilities of R are extended through user-created packages, which allow specialised statistical techniques, graphical devices, import/export capabilities, reporting tools (knitr, Sweave), etc. These packages are developed primarily in R, and sometimes in Java, C, C++, and Fortran.[citation needed] The R packaging system is also used by researchers to create compendia to organise research data, code and report files in a systematic way for sharing and public archiving.[36]
A core set of packages is included with the installation of R, with more than 15,000 additional packages (as of September 2018) available at the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN),[37]Bioconductor, Omegahat,[38]GitHub, and other repositories.[39]
The 'Task Views' page (subject list) on the CRAN website[40] lists a wide range of tasks (in fields such as Finance, Genetics, High Performance Computing, Machine Learning, Medical Imaging, Social Sciences and Spatial Statistics) to which R has been applied and for which packages are available. R has also been identified by the FDA as suitable for interpreting data from clinical research.[41]
Other R package resources include Crantastic,[42] a community site for rating and reviewing all CRAN packages, and R-Forge,[43] a central platform for the collaborative development of R packages, R-related software, and projects. R-Forge also hosts many unpublished beta packages, and development versions of CRAN packages.
The Bioconductor project provides R packages for the analysis of genomic data. This includes object-oriented files at CRAN.[45] Some highlights are listed below for several major releases.
Interfaces[edit]
The most specialized integrated development environment (IDE) for R is RStudio.[50] A similar development interface is R Tools for Visual Studio. Some generic IDEs like Eclipse,[51] also offer features to work with R.
Graphical user interfaces with more of a point-and-click approach include Rattle GUI, R Commander, and RKWard.
Some of the more common editors with varying levels of support for R include Emacs (Emacs Speaks Statistics), Vim (Nvim-R plugin[52]), Neovim (Nvim-R plugin[52]), Kate,[53]LyX,[54]Notepad++,[55]Visual Studio Code, WinEdt,[56] and Tinn-R.[57]
R functionality is accessible from several scripting languages such as Python,[58]Perl,[59]Ruby,[60]F#,[61] and Julia.[62] Interfaces to other, high-level programming languages, like Java[63] and .NET C#[64][65] are available as well. Download game of thrones season 5 episode 1.
Implementations[edit]
The main R implementation is written in R, C, and Fortran, and there are several other implementations aimed at improving speed or increasing extensibility. A closely related implementation is pqR (pretty quick R) by Radford M. Neal with improved memory management and support for automatic multithreading. Renjin and FastR are Java implementations of R for use in a Java Virtual Machine. CXXR, rho, and Riposte[66] are implementations of R in C++. Renjin, Riposte, and pqR attempt to improve performance by using multiple processor cores and some form of deferred evaluation.[67] Most of these alternative implementations are experimental and incomplete, with relatively few users, compared to the main implementation maintained by the R Development Core Team.
TIBCO built a runtime engine called TERR, which is part of Spotfire.[68]
Microsoft R Open is a fully compatible R distribution with modifications for multi-threaded computations.[69]
R communities[edit]
R has vibrant and active local communities worldwide for users to network, share ideas, and learn.[70][71]
There are many R-user meetups[72], including R-Ladies[73] groups that promote gender diversity.
useR! conferences[edit]
The official annual gathering of R users is called 'useR!'.[74]The first such event was useR! 2004 in May 2004, Vienna, Austria.[75] After skipping 2005, the useR! conference has been held annually, usually alternating between locations in Europe and North America.[76]Subsequent conferences have included:[74]
Future conferences planned are as follows:[74]
The R Journal[edit]
The R Journal is the open access, refereed journal of the R project for statistical computing. It features short to medium length articles on the use, and development of R, including packages, programming tips, CRAN news, and foundation news.
![]() Comparison with SAS, SPSS, and Stata[edit]
R is comparable to popular commercial statistical packages, such as SAS, SPSS, and Stata, but R is available to users at no charge under a free software license.[77]
In January 2009, the New York Times ran an article charting the growth of R, the reasons for its popularity among data scientists and the threat it poses to commercial statistical packages such as SAS.[78] In June 2017 data scientist Robert Muenchen published a more in-depth comparison between R and other software packages, 'The Popularity of Data Science Software'[79].
Commercial support for R[edit]
Although R is an open-source project supported by the community developing it, some companies strive to provide commercial support and/or extensions for their customers. This section gives some examples of such companies.
In 2007, Richard Schultz, Martin Schultz, Steve Weston and Kirk Mettler founded Revolution Analytics to provide commercial support for Revolution R, their distribution of R, which also includes components developed by the company. Major additional components include: ParallelR, the R Productivity Environment IDE, RevoScaleR (for big data analysis), RevoDeployR, web services framework, and the ability for reading and writing data in the SAS file format.[80] Revolution Analytics also offer a distribution of R designed to comply with established IQ/OQ/PQ criteria which enables clients in the pharmaceutical sector to validate their installation of REvolution R.[81] In 2015, Microsoft Corporation completed the acquisition of Revolution Analytics.[82] and has since integrated the R programming language into SQL Server 2016, SQL Server 2017, Power BI, Azure SQL Database, Azure Cortana Intelligence, Microsoft R Server and Visual Studio 2017.[83]
In October 2011, Oracle announced the Big Data Appliance, which integrates R, Apache Hadoop, Oracle Linux, and a NoSQL database with Exadata hardware.[84] As of 2012, Oracle R Enterprise[85] became one of two components of the 'Oracle Advanced Analytics Option'[86] (alongside Oracle Data Mining).[citation needed]
IBM offers support for in-Hadoop execution of R,[87] and provides a programming model for massively parallel in-database analytics in R.[88]
Other major commercial software systems supporting connections to or integration with R include: JMP,[89]Mathematica,[90]MATLAB,[91]Microsoft Power BI,[92]Pentaho,[93]Spotfire,[94]SPSS,[95]Statistica,[96]Platform Symphony,[97]SAS,[98]Tableau Software,[99]Esri ArcGIS,[100]Dundas[101] and Statgraphics.[102]
Tibco offers a runtime-version R as a part of Spotfire.[103]
Mango offers a validation package for R, ValidR,[104][105] to make it compliant with drug approval agencies, like FDA. These agencies allow for the use of any statistical software in submissions, if only the software is validated, either by the vendor or sponsor itself.[106]
Examples[edit]Basic syntax[edit]
The following examples illustrate the basic syntax of the language and use of the command-line interface.
In R, the generally preferred[107]assignment operator is an arrow made from two characters
<- , although = can usually be used instead.[108]Structure of a function[edit]
One of Râs strengths is the ease of creating new functions. Objects in the function body remain local to the function, and any data type may be returned.[109]Here is an example user-created function:
Mandelbrot set[edit]
Short R code calculating Mandelbrot set through the first 20 iterations of equation z = z2 + c plotted for different complex constants c. This example demonstrates:
See also[edit]References[edit]
External links[edit]
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=R_(programming_language)&oldid=902177127'
(CNN)R. Kelly on Friday put the brakes on his request for a judge's permission to travel abroad while he awaits trial on felony sex abuse charges -- but only so that he can amend the request with fuller information, his attorneys said.
Dressed in a dark suit, Kelly made a brief appearance at a status hearing Friday morning in a Chicago courtroom while his attorney Steve Greenberg asked a judge to delay their request to modify Kelly's bond so that the singer can work overseas.
Judge Lawrence Flood agreed to continue the request. It's not clear when that issue will next be addressed, but a hearing in the overall case is next scheduled for May 7.
Kelly's legal team had filed a motion Wednesday, asking the court to grant him permission to travel next month to Dubai to perform shows -- arguing that Kelly needs to work to pay child support and other bills. The singer had surrendered his passport under terms of the bail he was granted in February.
But Greenberg told reporters Friday after the hearing that he wanted to amend the request with additional information. He didn't specify what he'd add.
'I think there were some more details to be filled in to give the judge a certain comfort level' that might make him more likely to rule in Kelly's favor, Greenberg said.
Wednesday's court filing had stressed Kelly's need to generate income, as he 'has struggled of late to pay his child support and other child related expenses,' and has fallen 'behind on his studio rent.'
It also says Kelly has recently had difficulty working in the United States, citing two performances or appearances that organizers have canceled in the past year.
But on Friday, Kelly's entertainment attorney Doug Anton said offers recently have come in for Kelly to perform 'just about everywhere you could imagine.'
Greenberg said it wasn't clear yet whether they could amend their request in time for Kelly's scheduled performances in April in Dubai.
'He may still go to Dubai. He may not go to Dubai. We'll see,' Greenberg said.
R. Kelly walks into the courthouse in Chicago on Friday morning ahead of his hearing.
Kelly, 52, faces 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse involving four alleged victims, including three who prosecutors say were underage girls. The Class 2 felony charges cover allegations from 1998 to 2010.
He has pleaded not guilty to the charges and has consistently denied allegations of abusing women or being sexually involved with underage girls.
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The charges, filed last month, come after more than two decades of Kelly being associated with accusations of abuse, manipulation and inappropriate encounters with girls and young women. He has strongly denied the accusations and has not been convicted in any criminal case connected to them.
In the latest case, two of the victims were 16 years old at the time of the alleged abuse, one was between 14 and 16, and the fourth was 24, according to Cook County State's Attorney Kim Foxx's description of the evidence. The indictment says Kelly used force or the threat of force.
The charges were filed in February, after attorney Michael Avenatti announced he had given the state's attorney's office a videotape that he said showed Kelly having sex with an underage girl.
CNN has seen the VHS tape, which is 42 minutes and 45 seconds, clear and explicit. It appears to show Kelly having sex with a girl who refers to her body parts as 14 years old.
In a February 23 hearing, prosecutors revealed graphic details, including accusations that Kelly spit on two victims. And one of the alleged victims provided authorities with a shirt she wore during an alleged encounter with Kelly, which later tested positive for his DNA, prosecutors said.
Kelly was jailed February 22 in the current case before being released on bail three days later.
Greenberg has said he has not seen the tape and has demanded that prosecutors share it. He also has said he believes the accusers are lying and Kelly would be vindicated.
On Friday, the judge said that before the state turns over the tape, a court order would have to be put in place to ensure the video -- because it's alleged to show underage sex -- is protected. The judge did not address when or how that would happen.
What is on the video mirrors some of the alleged acts for which Kelly was arrested in a child pornography case in 2002, when he was 35.
In that 2002 case, there also was a video in which prosecutors said he appeared to be having sex with a girl.
Kelly was acquitted in 2008 of child pornography charges in that case.
Greenberg has said one of the current charges 'appears to involve the same alleged victim from the earlier case, and double jeopardy should bar that case.'
But the charges in the earlier case were child pornography charges -- different from the aggravated sexual abuse charges Kelly currently faces.
Kelly has been sued by multiple women accusing him of having sex with them when they were underage. Most cases, with the exception of the trial at which he was acquitted, have been settled out of court.
There has been a growing movement against him, including the #MuteRKelly campaign to stop his music from being played. His hits include 'I Believe I Can Fly' and 'Ignition.'
In January, the release of the docuseries, 'Surviving R. Kelly,' on Lifetime television helped boost the public campaign against him.
In that series, women said they were kept in abusive sexual relationships.
Kelly this month in a nearly 80-minute interview told CBS News' Gayle King he denied holding women against their will or having sex with anyone younger than 17.
'I have been assassinated,' Kelly said, asserting he was a victim of lies. 'I have been buried alive, but I'm alive.'
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Kelly also was jailed March 6 in a separate case involving what authorities said was failure to pay his ex-wife child support of $160,000. He was also released in that case after posting bail.
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CNN's Bill Kirkos, Lisa Respers France, Sara Sidner, Steve Almasy and Dakin Andone contributed to this report.
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